Since the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Bangladesh in October 1975, the two countries have developed into comprehensive strategic cooperative partners. At the beginning of this year, Professor Muhammad Yunus, Chief Adviser of Bangladeshi Interim Government, visited China, kicking off a series of activities to mark the 50th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between the two countries. Several major universities and research institutions, including the Shanghai Institutes for International Studies, the Bangladesh Institute of International and Strategic Studies, and Peking University, have held relevant seminars. Chinese President Xi Jinping noted that Chinese and Bangladeshi peoples have a long-standing history of friendly exchanges, and the ancient Silk Road closely linked the two countries. University of Dhaka - the “Peking University” of Bangladesh, its vice chancellor has repeatedly stated that the people-to-people exchanges between China and Bangladesh have a long history. In that case, let's go back to the Nalanda era (the 5th to 12th centuries AD, starting and ending with Nalanda Monastery, the Buddhist study center in South Asia), unseal the dusty history, explore the ancient memories, and understand the exchanges between the two countries.
I wonder if readers in Bangladesh are familiar with “Journey to the West”, one of the four great classical novels of China, or the recently popular game “Black Myth: Wukong”? Their stories are adapted from the journey of the Tang Dynasty monk Xuanzang to South Asia to retrieve Buddhist scriptures. Xuanzang studied the Consciousness-Only School under Master Shilabhadra at Nalanda Monastery at that time. He also visited many places and temples in Bangladesh and recorded his observations in “The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions”. When I was visiting Somapuri Vihara, the only World Cultural Heritage Site in Bangladesh, the guide told me that Xuanzang had also visited this place for study.
It is said that Xuanzang brought back a large number of Buddhist scriptures from South Asia to China. Among them, one was translated as “Yogacarabhumi Sastra”. When he presented this translated work to Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty, Taizong remarked, “I have reviewed the newly translated scriptures and treatises by the Venerable Master. They are as vast as the heavens and as deep as the sea—truly profound. Owing to urgent military and state affairs, I have not yet had the opportunity to study them in depth. Now I realize that the source of the Dharma is boundless. In comparison, the Confucian and Taoist traditions are but a small pond beside the great ocean.” Subsequently, Emperor Taizong ordered the relevant departments to disseminate this work throughout the country. This work is one of the important classics of the Consciousness-Only school. For readers interested in this school, a recommended starting point is Xuanzang’s summary of the Consciousness-Only tradition, the “Verses Delineating the Eight Consciousnesses”. This text primarily elaborates on the eight layers of consciousness: the first five—visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile consciousness; the sixth, mental consciousness; the seventh, Manas consciousness, which serves as the root of the sixth; and the eighth, Alayavijnana. Together, these transform into the four wisdoms: the Wisdom of Accomplishment, the Wisdom of Profound Insight, the Wisdom of Universal Equality and the Mirror-like Wisdom. In the period when Emperor Taizong was in power, it was later praised as the “Zhenguan era of good governance”. Other countries called Emperor Taizong “Heavenly Khan”, which shows the power and prosperity of the Tang Dynasty at that time. And the Consciousness-Only school brought back by Xuanzang to a certain extent promoted the realization of the “Zhenguan era of good governance” in terms of culture.
Three hundred years after Xuanzang’s death, a prince was born in Bengal. His name was Moon Essence, and after becoming a monk, he was called Dipamkara Shrijnana, commonly known as Atisha. Like Xuanzang, he also studied at Nalanda Monastery. The ruler of Xizang at that time sent people to invite Atisha to Xizang three times. Although the ruler promised to give him a lot of gold in return, Atisha refused the first two times because he was concerned about whether he could benefit the people of Xizang. Finally, he agreed.
Atisha's contributions to Xizang are as follows: First, his morality and knowledge made the various royal nobles stop fighting and maintain the overall peace in Xizang; Second, he translated many medical books and cured diseases. He once said: “For every medicine in South Asia, there is a medicine to replace it in Xizang. There is everything, and Xizang’s medicine is more powerful, especially for the poor.” Third, he wrote “A Lamp for the Enlightenment Path”, which prompted Tsongkhapa, who was later hailed as the “Second Buddha”, to write “The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path of Enlightenment” and establish the Yellow Hat School (a school of Tibetan Buddhism) with it. The earliest Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama were Tsongkhapa's students. Yellow Hat School influenced its highest political power in the Qing Dynasty.
Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty praised Xuanzang, stating, “The pines swaying in the wind and the moon reflected on still waters cannot match his clarity and elegance; immortal dew and luminous pearls cannot rival his brightness and refinement.” Indeed, this profound admiration extends equally to all sages and virtuous masters across time and cultures—both Chinese and foreign—including figures such as Atisha.
II. On the Land of Bangladesh: The Glorious Allah of Today and the Buddha of the Past Buried in Dust
In the “Qur’an”, there is a dialogue between the Prophet and Allah in which the Prophet expresses the desire to behold Allah, but Allah responds that He cannot be seen. As stated in the “Qur’an”, “No vision can grasp Him, but He grasps all vision” (Qur’an 6:103). This resonates strongly with a passage from the “Diamond Sutra”: “If one seeks me through form or sound, that person follows a false path and will not see the Tathagata.” This raises a critical question: Why are both Allah and the Tathagata fundamentally inaccessible to direct visual or auditory apprehension?
From the perspective of Chinese culture, both are understood as formless. Because they are formless, they cannot be perceived by the senses. Yet one might ask: was not Siddhartha, who lived two thousand years ago, the Tathagata? Did people not see him during his lifetime? To address this question, it is essential to understand the Buddhist doctrine of the three bodies (trikaya) of the Tathagata—namely, the Dharmakaya, Sambhogakaya, and Nirmanakaya. Philosophically, these correspond to essence, manifestation, and function. The historical Siddhartha born in South Asia, whom later generations venerate as the Buddha, appeared as the Nirmanakaya. Formlessness, however, pertains to the Dharmakaya, that is, the ultimate essence. As stated in the “Manjushri's Discourse on the Paramita of Wisdom”: “The Dharmakaya of the Tathagata is originally invisible; the Dharmakaya is inconceivable, without form or appearance, neither coming nor going, neither existent nor non-existent, neither seen nor unseen. It is like suchness, neither here nor there, neither one nor many, neither pure nor impure, neither born nor ceasing.” Given this understanding, can we say that the Tathagata and Allah are metaphysically analogous?
One might object that the teachings of the Tathagata and Allah differ significantly, and the principles they advocate are distinct. From this standpoint, however, we may turn to “The Universal Gate Chapter of the Lotus Sutra on Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva”, which describes how Guanyin Bodhisattva manifests in whatever form is necessary to liberate sentient beings. Thus, it follows that for those who are to be liberated through the form of the Buddha, the Bodhisattva manifests as the Buddha and delivers the Dharma; for those who are to be liberated through the form of Allah, the Bodhisattva may likewise manifest as Allah and teach accordingly. True good education is to teach students according to their aptitude, which should be tailored to each individual's circumstances. A classical example is Confucius in China, who, when asked about benevolence by different disciples, provided varied responses tailored to their specific characters and circumstances—an exemplary model of teaching according to aptitude.
The thought of Buddha discussed in this article originated from South Asia. In previous centuries, Buddha’s thought flourished in Bangladesh. Today, the philosophy of the Buddha has become an indispensable part of Chinese culture. It can be said that China has preserved the historical memory of South Asian countries including Bangladesh in the past. As a result, it is not an exaggeration to suggest that contemporary readers in Bangladesh are engaging in a form of dialogue with their own historical past.
III. The Humanistic Spirit in Chinese Culture
This year marks the China-Bangladesh Year of People-to-People Exchanges. It is hoped that the people of Bangladesh will come to understand the core of China’s humanistic spirit. But what is the core of the humanistic spirit of Chinese culture? --Namely, the Dao. The Chinese nation is a nation of the Dao.
Readers may wonder, what is the Dao? Laozi states in the “Tao Te Ching”: “There was something formless yet complete, existing before heaven and earth. Silent and boundless, standing alone without changing, moving through all things without failing—this may be regarded as the mother of the world. I do not know its name; I call it the Dao.” One might then ask, who is Laozi? While Confucius and Confucianism are widely known, in the early development of Chinese civilization, Confucian and Daoist thought were not clearly differentiated. It was only later that they evolved into distinct traditions and Laozi is one of the representative figures of Daoist thoughts. But where is the Dao to be found? Zhuangzi, another central figure in Daoist thoughts, addressed this very question, declaring that the Dao is “everywhere” — even in excrement and urine. This suggests that the Dao permeates all levels of existence. My personal understanding is that it is like a fish in water, which does not know the existence of water, or a person in the air, who does not know the existence of air. The Dao is the same, it is everywhere but cannot be seen or touched.
Even with such an explanation, the nature of the Dao may still remain difficult to grasp. To deepen our understanding, we can turn to the Buddhist perspective. As stated in the “Records of the Source Mirror”: “Thus it is known that all the sages regard this single thought at the moment of arising as unattainable—this is truly inconceivable. Apart from this, there is certainly no other extraordinary thing. Those who clearly realize this—have they not already attained the Dao swiftly? Why wait for the mind to dissolve before seeing it?” Seeing the Dao pertains primarily to inner cultivation; yet the Dao’s manifestation in the world takes the form of social practice: “When the Great Dao prevails, a world of fairness and justice is pursued for the common good.The worthy and capable are selected and employed; trustworthiness is honored and harmony cultivated. People do not merely care for their own parents or love only their own children. The elderly are given a dignified end, the able-bodied have meaningful roles, the young grow up with proper support, and the widowed, orphaned, solitary, disabled, and ill are all cared for. Men fulfill their duties, women find stability. Goods are abhorred when wasted on the ground—not hoarded for oneself; effort is abhorred when withheld—not exerted solely for personal gain. Thus, scheming ceases, theft and rebellion do not arise, and doors remain open at night. This is called Datong.” This vision of an ideal society resonates deeply with Islamic aspirations. The “Qur’an” emphasizes that the primary duty of Muslims is to establish a just and equitable society in which the poor and vulnerable are protected and honored. The Prophet Muhammad also emphasizes that every believer in God has the responsibility to contribute to the creation of a just and beautiful society.
IV. Two Great Civilizations Advancing Together
Despite the many differences between Chinese and Islamic civilizations, they share significant common ground—both at the metaphysical level and in their approaches to social governance. This shared foundation enables them to advance hand in hand, engaging in mutual learning and dialogue. By doing so, they can actively realize China’s “Global Civilization Initiative”: respecting the diversity of world civilizations, upholding common human values, emphasizing the inheritance and innovation of cultural traditions, and enhancing international humanistic exchange and cooperation. In this way, both civilizations can make meaningful contributions to the cause of global peace.
At this moment, a vision arises in the author’s mind: the Prophet Muhammad and the ancient sage Confucius seated together, playing chess and sipping tea. Muhammad says to Confucius, “Even if knowledge is in China, one must seek it.” Confucius gently strokes his beard and responds, “Is it not a joy to have friends arrive from distant lands?” The two sages then exchange a knowing smile, and a soft ray of dawn light breaks across the sky.
Zhu Shicheng, Executive Deputy Director
Centre for China Studies (SIIS-DU)
Oct 29, 2025
